The inflammatory response is an attempt by the body to restore and maintain homeostasis after invasion by an infectious agent, antigen challenge, or physical, chemical or traumatic damage. While the inflammatory response is generally considered a healthy response to injury, the immune system can present an undesirable physiological response if it is not appropriately regulated. Specifically, unregulated oxidation and associated inflammation are major causes of tissue damage and clinically significant disease in preterm and term infants. This is due in large part to the immaturity in function of the natural immune system of infants, and especially preterm infants.
Inflammation is one of the leading mechanisms of non-communicable diseases in the world, in particular, obesity and its co-morbidities. For example, obesity is characterized by chronic low-grade inflammation in adipose tissue which contributes to insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes (non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus), and cardiovascular disease. Cytokine secreted by cells of the innate immune system (i.e., macrophages) and adipose tissues (e.g., adipokines) are believed to be the key to regulating the inflammatory milieu. In particular, IL-1β, TNF-α, and activation of the NF-κB pathway have been linked to the negative metabolic effects of obesity, including cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Furthermore, inhibition of several independent arms of the NF-κB pathway shows less weight gain, increased insulin sensitivity, improved lipid profile, and decreased inflammation.
Breastfeeding has been associated with enhanced development and balanced growth and maturation of the infant's immune systems, thereby providing protection of the infant to infection and inflammatory-related diseases. Breast milk appears to contain antioxidants, such as superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase and catalase, or other non-enzymatic antioxidants such as glutathione, lactoferrin and polyphenols, in addition to antioxidants, such as vitamins A, C, E and selenium.
Not all infants receive human breast milk. Further, no vaccines are currently available for the prevention of inflammatory-related diseases, such as obesity and insulin resistance. Therefore, development of safe and efficacious preventative or therapeutic methods would be beneficial, especially for infants. Particularly, infant formulas designed to be closer to breast milk in terms of composition and function would provide a benefit to these infants.
It would therefore be desirable to provide an infant formula that could mimic the antioxidative protective effects of breast milk. It would be further advantageous if the formulas could reduce the risk of inflammatory-related diseases, such as obesity, later in life.